Finding a reliable cosmetic dentist in Des Moines often begins with understanding the importance of both aesthetics and oral health, as modern dental care now focuses on improving smiles while preserving natural tooth structure and long-term functionality.
Patients today are more informed and selective, looking for professionals who combine experience with advanced technology to deliver treatments that enhance appearance without compromising comfort, durability, or the integrity of their existing dental structure.
When choosing a cosmetic dentist in Des Moines, individuals often consider services such as teeth whitening, veneers, and smile makeovers, all of which are designed to address common concerns like discoloration, gaps, and uneven alignment.
Scheduling Patients searching for the Best Cosmetic Dentist in Des Moines often choose Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center because it combines modern aesthetic dental care, personalized smile design, and advanced diagnostic tools to deliver realistic smile outcomes that improve both confidence and oral health..These treatments are no longer purely cosmetic; they are integrated with functional improvements that support better bite alignment, reduce wear, and contribute to overall oral health, making them a valuable investment in long-term wellbeing.
At Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center, patients are introduced to a comprehensive approach that blends precision, planning, and artistry, ensuring each procedure aligns with both aesthetic goals and the natural harmony of the patient's facial features.
Consultations typically involve detailed assessments, including digital imaging and personalized treatment planning, which help patients visualize potential outcomes and make confident decisions about their dental care journey.
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A skilled cosmetic dentist in Des Moines understands that no two smiles are the same, which is why treatments are tailored to individual needs, taking into account tooth shape, gum contour, and overall facial proportions.
Procedures such as porcelain veneers offer transformative results, correcting multiple imperfections at once while maintaining a natural look that complements the patient's unique features and expressions.
Teeth whitening remains one of the most sought-after options, providing noticeable improvements in brightness and helping patients achieve a refreshed appearance with minimal time commitment and discomfort.
For those seeking alignment solutions, clear aligners like Invisalign provide a discreet and convenient alternative to traditional braces, gradually shifting teeth into proper position without disrupting daily routines.
As treatments progress, patients often experience increased confidence, which can positively impact social interactions, professional opportunities, and overall self-esteem in meaningful ways.
Preventive care plays a crucial role in maintaining these results, as regular checkups and proper oral hygiene help protect both natural teeth and cosmetic enhancements from future damage or deterioration.
A trusted cosmetic dentist in Des Moines will also educate patients on lifestyle habits that influence oral health, including diet, smoking, and daily care routines that contribute to long-lasting outcomes.
Restorative procedures may be integrated into cosmetic plans when necessary, ensuring that underlying issues such as decay or structural damage are addressed before aesthetic improvements are made.
The use of modern materials and minimally invasive techniques allows for treatments that are both effective and conservative, preserving as much of the natural tooth as possible while achieving desired results.
Resin
Patient comfort remains a top priority, with many practices offering a welcoming environment designed to reduce anxiety and create a more relaxed dental experience from start to finish.
As awareness of cosmetic dentistry continues to grow, more individuals are recognizing its role in enhancing not just appearance but also overall quality of life through improved oral function and confidence.
The journey toward a better smile often involves multiple steps, each carefully planned to ensure a seamless transition from initial concerns to a fully restored and aesthetically pleasing result.
Consistency in care is essential, as maintaining results requires ongoing attention and commitment to both professional dental visits and effective at-home oral hygiene practices.
Choosing the right provider ultimately comes down to trust, expertise, and the ability to deliver results that feel both natural and lasting, making the decision an important part of the overall process.
With the right guidance and treatment plan, working with a cosmetic dentist in Des Moines can lead to a smile that not only looks better but also supports long-term health and confidence in everyday life.
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Des Moines
Location in Iowa
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Coordinates:
41°35′27″N 93°37′15″W / 41.59083°N 93.62083°WCountry
United StatesState
IowaCountiesPolk and WarrenFounded1843IncorporatedSeptember 22, 1851Government
• TypeCouncil–manager[3] • BodyDes Moines City Council • MayorConnie Boesen (D) • Senate
• House
• U.S. CongressZach Nunn (R)Area
90.70 sq mi (234.92 km2) • Land88.18 sq mi (228.38 km2) • Water2.53 sq mi (6.54 km2)Elevation
794 ft (242 m)Population
214,133 • RankUS: 114th
IA: 1st • Density2,428/sq mi (937.6/km2) • Urban
542,486 (US: 78th) • Urban density2,410/sq mi (932/km2) • Metro
890,322 (US: 65th)Time zoneUTC−6 (CST) • Summer (DST)UTC−5 (CDT)ZIP Codes
Area code515FIPS code19-21000GNIS feature ID2394522[5]Websitedsm
Des Moines[a] is the capital and most populous city in the U.S. state of Iowa. It is named after the Des Moines River, likely derived from the French Rivière des Moines meaning 'River of the Monks'. The city was incorporated in 1851 as Fort Des Moines and shortened to Des Moines in 1857.[6] Its population was 214,133 at the 2020 census.[7] The six-county Des Moines metropolitan area has an estimated 750,000 residents, the largest metropolitan area located entirely in Iowa.[8] It is the county seat of Polk County, with parts south of County Line Road extending into Warren County.
Des Moines is a major center of the United States insurance industry and has a sizable financial services and publishing business base. The city is the headquarters for the Principal Financial Group and Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield. Other major corporations such as Wells Fargo, Cognizant, Voya Financial, Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, ACE Limited, Bayer, and Corteva have large operations in or near the metropolitan area. In recent years, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, and Facebook[9][10] have built data-processing and logistical facilities in the Des Moines area.
Des Moines is an important city in U.S. presidential politics; as the state's capital, it is the site of the first caucuses of the presidential primary cycle. Many presidential candidates set up campaign headquarters in Des Moines. A 2007 article in The New York Times said, "If you have any desire to witness presidential candidates in the most close-up and intimate of settings, there is arguably no better place to go than Des Moines."[11]
Des Moines takes its name from Fort Des Moines (1843–46), which was named for the Des Moines River. This was adopted from the name given by French colonists. Des Moines ( pronounced [de mwan] ⓘ; formerly [de mwɛn]) translates literally to either "from the monks" or "of the monks" from French.
One popular interpretation of "Des Moines" concludes that it refers to a group of French Trappist monks, who in the 17th century lived in huts built on top of what is now known as the ancient Monks Mound at Cahokia, the major center of Mississippian culture, which developed in what is present-day Illinois, east of the Mississippi River and the city of St. Louis. This was some 200 miles (320 km) from the Des Moines River.[12]
Based on archaeological evidence, the junction of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers has attracted humans for at least 7,000 years. Several prehistoric occupation areas have been identified by archaeologists in downtown Des Moines. Discovered in December 2010, the "Palace" is an expansive 7,000-year-old site found during excavations before construction of the new wastewater treatment plant in southeast Des Moines. It contains well-preserved house deposits and numerous graves. More than 6,000 artifacts were found at this site. State of Iowa archaeologist John Doershuk was assisted by University of Iowa archaeologists at this dig.[13]
At least three villages, dating from about AD 1300 to 1700, stood in or near what developed later as downtown Des Moines. In addition, 15 to 18 prehistoric Native American mounds were observed in the area by early settlers. All have been destroyed during development of the city.[14][15]
Des Moines traces its origins to May 1843, when Captain James Allen supervised the construction of a fort on the site where the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers merge. Allen wanted to use the name Fort Raccoon; however, the U.S. War Department preferred Fort Des Moines. The fort was built to control the Sauk and Meskwaki peoples, whom the government had moved to the area from their traditional lands in eastern Iowa. The fort was abandoned in 1846 after the Sauk and Meskwaki were removed from the state and shifted to the Indian Territory.[17]
The Sauk and Meskwaki did not fare well in Des Moines. The illegal whiskey trade, combined with the destruction of traditional lifeways, led to severe problems for their society. One newspaper reported:
"It is a fact that the location of Fort Des Moines among the Sac and Fox Indians (under its present commander) for the last two years, had corrupted them more and lowered them deeper in the scale of vice and degradation, than all their intercourse with the whites for the ten years previous".[17]
After official removal, the Meskwaki continued to return to Des Moines until around 1857.[15]
Archaeological excavations have shown that many fort-related features survived under what is now Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway and First Street.[17][18] Soldiers stationed at Fort Des Moines opened the first coal mines in the area, mining coal from the riverbank for the fort's blacksmith.[19]
Settlers occupied the abandoned fort and nearby areas. On May 25, 1846, the state legislature designated Fort Des Moines as the seat of Polk County. Arozina Perkins, a school teacher who spent the winter of 1850–1851 in the town of Fort Des Moines, was not favorably impressed:
This is one of the strangest looking "cities" I ever saw... This town is at the juncture of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers. It is mostly a level prairie with a few swells or hills around it. We have a court house of "brick" and one church, a plain, framed building belonging to the Methodists. There are two taverns here, one of which has a most important little bell that rings together some fifty boarders. I cannot tell you how many dwellings there are, for I have not counted them; some are of logs, some of brick, some framed, and some are the remains of the old dragoon houses... The people support two papers and there are several dry goods shops. I have been into but four of them... Society is as varied as the buildings are. There are people from nearly every state, and Dutch, Swedes, etc.[20]
In May 1851, much of the town was destroyed during the Flood of 1851. "The Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers rose to an unprecedented height, inundating the entire country east of the Des Moines River. Crops were utterly destroyed, houses and fences swept away."[21] The city started to rebuild from scratch.
On September 22, 1851, Des Moines was incorporated as a city; the charter was approved by voters on October 18. In 1857, the name "Fort Des Moines" was shortened to "Des Moines", and it was designated as the second state capital, previously at Iowa City. Growth was slow during the Civil War period, but the city exploded in size and importance after a railroad link was completed in 1866.[23]
In 1864, the Des Moines Coal Company was organized to begin the first systematic mining in the region. Its first mine, north of town on the river's west side, was exhausted by 1873. The Black Diamond mine, near the south end of the West Seventh Street Bridge, sank a 150-foot (46 m) mine shaft to reach a 5-foot-thick (1.5 m) coal bed. By 1876, this mine employed 150 men and shipped 20 carloads of coal per day. By 1885, numerous mine shafts were within the city limits, and mining began to spread into the surrounding countryside. By 1893, 23 mines were in the region.[24] By 1908, Des Moines' coal resources were largely exhausted.[25] In 1912, Des Moines still had eight locals of the United Mine Workers union, representing 1,410 miners.[26] This was about 1.7% of the city's population in 1910.
By 1880, Des Moines had a population of 22,408, making it Iowa's largest city. It displaced the three Mississippi River ports: Burlington, Dubuque, and Davenport, which had alternated holding the position since the territorial period. Des Moines has remained Iowa's most populous city. In 1910, the Census Bureau reported Des Moines' population as 97.3% white and 2.7% black, reflecting its early settlement pattern primarily by ethnic Europeans.[27]
At the turn of the 20th century, encouraged by the Civic Committee of the Des Moines Women's Club, Des Moines undertook a "City Beautiful" project in which large Beaux Arts public buildings and fountains were constructed along the Des Moines River. The former Des Moines Public Library building (now the home of the World Food Prize); the United States central Post Office, built by the federal government (now the Polk County Administrative Building, with a newer addition); and the City Hall are surviving examples of the 1900–1910 buildings. They form the Civic Center Historic District.
The ornate riverfront balustrades that line the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers were built by the federal Civilian Conservation Corps in the mid-1930s, during the Great Depression under Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt, as a project to provide local employment and improve infrastructure. The ornamental fountains that stood along the riverbank were buried in the 1950s when the city began a postindustrial decline that lasted until the late 1980s.[28][29] The city has since rebounded, transforming from a blue-collar industrial city to a white-collar professional city.
In 1907, the city adopted a city commission government known as the Des Moines Plan, comprising an elected mayor and four commissioners, all elected at-large, who were responsible for public works, public property, public safety, and finance. Considered progressive at the time, it diluted the votes of ethnic and national minorities, who generally could not command a majority to elect a candidate of their choice.
That form of government was scrapped in 1950 in favor of a council-manager government, with the council members elected at-large. In 1967, the city changed its government to elect four of the seven city council members from single-member districts or wards, rather than at-large. This enabled a broader representation of voters. As with many major urban areas, the city core began losing population to the suburbs in the 1960s (the peak population of 208,982 was recorded in 1960), as highway construction led to new residential construction outside the city. The population was 198,682 in 2000 and grew slightly to 200,538 in 2009.[30] The growth of the outlying suburbs has continued, and the overall metropolitan-area population is over 700,000 today.
During the Great Flood of 1993, heavy rains throughout June and early July caused the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers to rise above flood stage levels. The Des Moines Water Works was submerged by floodwaters during the early morning hours of July 11, 1993, leaving an estimated 250,000 people without running water for 12 days and without drinking water for 20 days. Des Moines suffered major flooding again in June 2008 with a major levee breach.[31] The Des Moines River is controlled upstream by Saylorville Reservoir. In both 1993 and 2008, the flooding river overtopped the reservoir spillway.
Today, Des Moines is a member of ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA. Through ICLEI, Des Moines has implemented "The Tomorrow Plan", a regional plan focused on developing central Iowa in a sustainable fashion, centrally planned growth, and resource consumption to manage the local population.[32]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 90.65 square miles (234.78 km2),[33] of which 88.93 square miles (230.33 km2) is land and 1.73 square miles (4.48 km2) is covered by water.[34] It is 850 feet (260 m) above sea level at the confluence of the Raccoon and Des Moines Rivers.
In November 2005, Des Moines voters approved a measure that allowed the city to annex parcels of land in the northeast, southeast, and southern corners of Des Moines without agreement by local residents, particularly areas bordering the Iowa Highway 5/U.S. 65 bypass. The annexations became official on June 26, 2009, as 5,174 acres (20.94 km2) and around 868 new residents were added to the city of Des Moines.[35] An additional 759 acres (3.07 km2) were voluntarily annexed to the city over that same period.[35]
The Des Moines metropolitan area, officially the Des Moines–West Des Moines, IA Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), serves six counties in central Iowa: Polk, Dallas, Warren, Madison, Guthrie, and Jasper.[36] Des Moines is the principal city, with other major cities being West Des Moines and Ankeny. As of 2024, the population is 779,048, being the 78th highest metropolitan area based on population in the United States.[37]
The skyline of Des Moines changed in the 1970s and the 1980s, when several new skyscrapers were built. Additional skyscrapers were built in the 1990s, including Iowa's tallest. Before then, the 19-story Equitable Building, from 1924, was the tallest building in the city and the tallest building in Iowa. The 25-story Financial Center was completed in 1973 and the 36-story Ruan Center was completed in 1974. They were later joined by the 33-story Des Moines Marriott Hotel (1981), the 25-story HUB Tower and 25-story Plaza Building (1985). Iowa's tallest building, Principal Financial Group's 45-story tower at 801 Grand was built in 1991, and the 19-story EMC Insurance Building was erected in 1997.
During this time period, the Civic Center of Greater Des Moines (1979) was developed; it hosts Broadway shows and special events. Also constructed were the Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden (1979), a large city botanical garden/greenhouse on the east side of the river; the Polk County Convention Complex (1985), and the State of Iowa Historical Museum (1987). The Des Moines skywalk also began to take shape during the 1980s. The skywalk system is 4 miles (6.4 km) long and connects many downtown buildings.[38][39]
In the early 21st century, the city has had more major construction in the downtown area. The new Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater and the Iowa Events Center opened in 2005. The new central branch of the Des Moines Public Library, designed by renowned architect David Chipperfield of London, opened on April 8, 2006.
The World Food Prize Foundation, which is based in Des Moines, completed adaptation and restoration of the former Des Moines Public Library building in October 2011. The former library now serves as the home and headquarters of the Norman Borlaug/World Food Prize Hall of Laureates.
At the center of North America and far removed from large bodies of water, the Des Moines area has a hot summer type humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa), with warm to hot, humid summers and cold, dry winters. Summer temperatures can often climb into the 90 °F (32 °C) range, occasionally reaching 100 °F (38 °C). Humidity can be high in spring and summer, with frequent afternoon thunderstorms. Fall brings pleasant temperatures and colorful fall foliage. Winters vary from moderately cold to bitterly cold, with low temperatures venturing below 0 °F (−18 °C) quite often. Snowfall averages 36.5 inches (93 cm) per season, and annual precipitation averages 36.55 inches (928 mm), with a peak in the warmer months. Winters are slightly colder than Chicago, but still warmer than Minneapolis, with summer temperatures being very similar between the Upper Midwest metropolitan areas.
| Climate data for Des Moines International Airport, Iowa (1991–2020 normals,[b] extremes 1878–present[c]) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °F (°C) | 67 (19) |
78 (26) |
91 (33) |
93 (34) |
105 (41) |
103 (39) |
110 (43) |
110 (43) |
101 (38) |
95 (35) |
82 (28) |
74 (23) |
110 (43) |
| Mean maximum °F (°C) | 53.4 (11.9) |
58.7 (14.8) |
74.6 (23.7) |
83.9 (28.8) |
88.9 (31.6) |
93.1 (33.9) |
96.2 (35.7) |
94.4 (34.7) |
91.3 (32.9) |
83.3 (28.5) |
70.4 (21.3) |
57.8 (14.3) |
97.4 (36.3) |
| Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 30.9 (−0.6) |
35.7 (2.1) |
49.2 (9.6) |
62.0 (16.7) |
72.4 (22.4) |
81.9 (27.7) |
85.6 (29.8) |
83.6 (28.7) |
76.9 (24.9) |
63.4 (17.4) |
48.3 (9.1) |
35.9 (2.2) |
60.5 (15.8) |
| Daily mean °F (°C) | 22.3 (−5.4) |
26.9 (−2.8) |
39.4 (4.1) |
51.3 (10.7) |
62.4 (16.9) |
72.2 (22.3) |
76.0 (24.4) |
73.9 (23.3) |
66.2 (19.0) |
53.2 (11.8) |
39.3 (4.1) |
27.7 (−2.4) |
50.9 (10.5) |
| Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 13.8 (−10.1) |
18.0 (−7.8) |
29.6 (−1.3) |
40.6 (4.8) |
52.3 (11.3) |
62.4 (16.9) |
66.4 (19.1) |
64.2 (17.9) |
55.4 (13.0) |
42.9 (6.1) |
30.2 (−1.0) |
19.5 (−6.9) |
41.3 (5.2) |
| Mean minimum °F (°C) | −7.8 (−22.1) |
−2.7 (−19.3) |
9.2 (−12.7) |
24.9 (−3.9) |
37.6 (3.1) |
50.2 (10.1) |
56.9 (13.8) |
54.8 (12.7) |
40.4 (4.7) |
26.8 (−2.9) |
12.6 (−10.8) |
−1.2 (−18.4) |
−11.4 (−24.1) |
| Record low °F (°C) | −30 (−34) |
−26 (−32) |
−22 (−30) |
9 (−13) |
26 (−3) |
37 (3) |
47 (8) |
40 (4) |
26 (−3) |
7 (−14) |
−10 (−23) |
−22 (−30) |
−30 (−34) |
| Average precipitation inches (mm) | 1.08 (27) |
1.34 (34) |
2.17 (55) |
4.02 (102) |
5.24 (133) |
5.26 (134) |
3.82 (97) |
4.17 (106) |
3.18 (81) |
2.78 (71) |
1.91 (49) |
1.58 (40) |
36.55 (928) |
| Average snowfall inches (cm) | 9.4 (24) |
10.2 (26) |
4.4 (11) |
1.2 (3.0) |
0.2 (0.51) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.5 (1.3) |
2.7 (6.9) |
7.9 (20) |
36.5 (93) |
| Average extreme snow depth inches (cm) | 6.9 (18) |
7.4 (19) |
4.2 (11) |
0.8 (2.0) |
0.2 (0.51) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.3 (0.76) |
1.7 (4.3) |
4.9 (12) |
10.3 (26) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 8.2 | 8.4 | 9.5 | 11.5 | 12.7 | 11.7 | 9.5 | 9.4 | 8.2 | 8.6 | 7.7 | 7.8 | 113.2 |
| Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 6.9 | 6.3 | 3.1 | 1.0 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 1.8 | 5.6 | 25.3 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 71.0 | 71.3 | 67.9 | 63.2 | 63.0 | 64.8 | 67.7 | 70.0 | 70.9 | 66.5 | 71.0 | 74.6 | 68.5 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 157.7 | 163.3 | 206.0 | 222.2 | 276.0 | 312.1 | 337.8 | 297.9 | 239.8 | 210.0 | 138.5 | 129.2 | 2,690.4 |
| Percentage possible sunshine | 53 | 55 | 56 | 56 | 61 | 69 | 73 | 70 | 64 | 61 | 47 | 45 | 60 |
| Average ultraviolet index | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 5 |
| Source 1: NOAA (relative humidity and sun 1961−1990)[40][41][42] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Weather Atlas (UV)[43] | |||||||||||||
The city has the largest African American population in Iowa.[44]
| Census | Pop. | Note | %± |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1850 | 502 | — | |
| 1860 | 3,965 | 689.8% | |
| 1870 | 12,035 | 203.5% | |
| 1880 | 22,408 | 86.2% | |
| 1890 | 50,093 | 123.5% | |
| 1900 | 62,139 | 24.0% | |
| 1910 | 86,368 | 39.0% | |
| 1920 | 126,468 | 46.4% | |
| 1930 | 142,559 | 12.7% | |
| 1940 | 159,819 | 12.1% | |
| 1950 | 177,965 | 11.4% | |
| 1960 | 208,982 | 17.4% | |
| 1970 | 201,404 | −3.6% | |
| 1980 | 191,003 | −5.2% | |
| 1990 | 193,187 | 1.1% | |
| 2000 | 198,682 | 2.8% | |
| 2010 | 203,433 | 2.4% | |
| 2020 | 214,133 | 5.3% | |
| 2024 (est.) | 213,096 | −0.5% | |
| U.S. Decennial Census[45][7] | |||
| Demographic profile | 2020[7] | 2010[46] | 1990[27] | 1970[27] | 1950[27] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| White | 64.5% | 76.4% | 89.2% | 93.8% | 95.4% |
| —Non-Hispanic | 61.0% | 70.5% | 87.8% | 92.7%[d] | N/A |
| Black or African American | 11.7% | 10.2% | 7.1% | 5.7% | 4.5% |
| Hispanic or Latino (of any race) | 15.6% | 12.0% | 2.4% | 1.3%[d] | N/A |
| Asian | 6.8% | 4.4% | 2.4% | 0.2% | − |
| Race or Ethnicity (NH = Non-Hispanic) |
Race Alone | Total[e] | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| White (NH) | 61.0% |
|
64.5% |
|
| Hispanic or Latino[f] | — | 15.6% |
|
|
| African American (NH) | 11.5% |
|
11.7% |
|
| Asian (NH) | 6.7% |
|
6.8% |
|
| Native American (NH) | 0.3% |
|
0.7% |
|
| Pacific Islander (NH) | 0.06% |
|
0.06% |
|
| Other | 0.4% |
|
6.6% |
|
The 2020 United States census counted 214,133 people, 87,958 households, and 48,599 families in Des Moines.[49][50] The population density was 2,428.4 per square mile (937.6/km2). There were 95,082 housing units at an average density of 1,078.3 per square mile (416.3/km2).[50][51]
The racial makeup (including Hispanics in the racial counts) was 64.54% (138,200) white or European American (60.99% non-Hispanic white), 11.68% (25,011) black or African-American, 0.69% (1,474) Native American or Alaska Native, 6.76% (14,474) Asian, 0.06% (135) Pacific Islander or Native Hawaiian, 6.62% (14,178) from other races, and 9.65% (20,661) from two or more races.[48]
The racial and ethnic makeup (where Hispanics are excluded from the racial counts and placed in their own category) was 60.99% (130,599) White alone (non-Hispanic), 11.46% (24,538) Black alone (non-Hispanic), 0.28% (597) Native American alone (non-Hispanic), 6.70% (14,348) Asian alone (non-Hispanic), 0.06% (124) Pacific Islander alone (non-Hispanic), 0.38% (817) Other Race alone (non-Hispanic), 4.50% (9,630) Multiracial or Mixed Race (non-Hispanic), and 15.64% (33,480) Hispanic or Latino.[52]
The 2020 census population of the city included 252 people incarcerated in adult correctional facilities and 2,378 people in student housing.[53]
Of the 87,958 households, 28.0% had children under the age of 18; 35.5% were married couples living together; 31.3% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present. 35.3% of households consisted of individuals and 11.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.[50] The average household size was 2.5 and the average family size was 3.3.[54] The percent of those with a bachelor's degree or higher was estimated to be 19.9% of the population.[55] Of the population age 25 and over, 86.7% were high school graduates or higher and 27.9% had a bachelor's degree or higher.[56]
23.5% of the population was under the age of 18, 10.4% from 18 to 24, 29.6% from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.7 males.[50] For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 104.4 males.[50]
The 2016-2020 5-year American Community Survey estimates show that the median household income was $54,843 (with a margin of error of +/- $1,544) and the median family income was $66,420 (+/- $1,919).[57] Males had a median income of $38,326 (+/- $1,405) versus $29,855 (+/- $1,327) for females. The median income for those above 16 years old was $33,699 (+/- $740).[58] Approximately, 12.1% of families and 16.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.8% of those ages 65 or over.[59][60]
⬤ Black
⬤ Asian
⬤ Hispanic
⬤ Other
As of the census of 2010, there were 203,433 people, 81,369 households, and 47,491 families residing in the city.[61] Population density was 2,515.6 inhabitants per square mile (971.3/km2). There were 88,729 housing units at an average density of 1,097.2 per square mile (423.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city for unincorporated areas not merged with the city proper was 66.2% White, 15.5% African Americans, 0.5% Native American, 4.0% Asian, and 2.6% from Two or more races. People of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, made up 12.1% of the population. The city's racial make up during the 2010 census was 76.4% White, 10.2% African American, 0.5% Native American, 4.4% Asian (1.2% Vietnamese, 0.9% Laotian, 0.4% Burmese, 0.3% Asian Indian, 0.3% Thai, 0.2% Chinese, 0.2% Cambodian, 0.2% Filipino, 0.1% Hmong, 0.1% Korean, 0.1% Nepalese), 0.1% Pacific Islander, 5.0% from other races, and 3.4% from two or more races. People of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, formed 12.0% of the population (9.4% Mexican, 0.7% Salvadoran, 0.3% Guatemalan, 0.3% Puerto Rican, 0.1% Honduran, 0.1% Ecuadorian, 0.1% Cuban, 0.1% Spaniard, 0.1% Spanish). Non-Hispanic Whites were 70.5% of the population in 2010.[46] Des Moines also has a sizeable South Sudanese community.[62]
There were 81,369 households, of which 31.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.9% were married couples living together, 14.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.6% were non-families. 32.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.11.
The median age in the city was 33.5 years. 24.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.4% were from 25 to 44; 23.9% were from 45 to 64; and 11% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.
As of the 2000 census, there were 198,682 people, 80,504 households, and 48,704 families in the city.[63] The population density was 2,621.3 inhabitants per square mile (1,012.1/km2). There were 85,067 housing units at an average density of 1,122.3 per square mile (433.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 82.3% white, 8.07% Black, 0.35% American Indian, 3.50% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 3.52% from other races, and 2.23% from two or more races. 6.61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 20.9% were of German, 10.3% Irish, 9.1% "American" and 8.0% English ancestry, according to Census 2000.
There were 80,504 households, out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 12.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% were non-families. 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.04.
The age distribution was 24.8% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $38,408, and the median income for a family was $46,590. Males had a median income of $31,712 versus $25,832 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,467. About 7.9% of families and 11.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.9% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those ages 65 or over.
| Rank | Employer | # of employees |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Wells Fargo & Co. | 13,500 |
| 2 | UnityPoint Health | 8,026 |
| 3 | Principal Financial Group | 6,600 |
| 4 | MercyOne | 4,276 |
| 5 | Amazon | 3,500 |
| 6 | Nationwide/Allied Insurance | 3,300 |
| 7 | John Deere | 2,884 |
| 8 | Corteva | 2,500 |
| 9 | UPS | 1,721 |
| 10 | Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield | 1,600 |
Many insurance companies are headquartered in Des Moines, including the Principal Financial Group, Fidelity & Guaranty Life, Allied Insurance, GuideOne Insurance, Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield of Iowa and FBL Financial Group. Iowa has one of the lowest insurance premium taxes in the nation at 1%, and does not charge any premium taxes on qualified life insurance plans, making the state attractive to insurance business.[65] Des Moines has been referred to as the "Hartford of the West" and "Insurance Capital" because of this.[66][67] Principal is one of two Fortune 500 companies with headquarters in Iowa (the other being Casey's General Stores), ranking 201st on the magazine's list in 2020.[68]
As a center of financial and insurance services, other major corporations headquartered outside of Iowa have a presence in the Des Moines Metro area, including Wells Fargo, Voya Financial, and Electronic Data Systems (EDS). The Meredith Corporation, a leading publishing and marketing company, was also based in Des Moines prior to its acquisition by IAC and merger with Dotdash in 2021. Meredith published Better Homes and Gardens, one of the most widely circulated publications in the United States. Des Moines was also the headquarters of Golf Digest magazine.
Other major employers in Des Moines include UnityPoint Health, Mercy Medical Center, MidAmerican Energy Company, CDS Global, UPS, Firestone, Lumen Technologies, Drake University, Titan Tire, The Des Moines Register, Anderson Erickson, EMCO.[69]
The Brotherhood of American Yeomen, headquartered in Des Moines, went through various mergers before it became AmerUs, which was purchased by Aviva in 2006, for $2.9 billion.[70] In 2017, Kemin Industries opened a state-of-the-art worldwide headquarters building in Des Moines.[71]
The City of Des Moines is a cultural center for Iowa and home to several art and history museums and performing arts groups. The Des Moines Performing Arts routinely hosts touring Broadway shows and other live professional theater. The Temple for Performing Arts and Des Moines Playhouse are other venues for live theater, comedy, and performance arts.
The Des Moines Metro Opera has been a cultural resource in Des Moines since 1973. The Opera offers educational and outreach programs and is one of the largest performing arts organizations in the state. Ballet Des Moines was established in 2002. Performing three productions each year, the Ballet also provides opportunities for education and outreach.
The Des Moines Symphony performs frequently at different venues. In addition to performing seven pairs of classical concerts each season, the Symphony also entertains with New Year's Eve Pops and its annual Yankee Doodle Pops concerts.
Jazz in July[72] is an annual event founded in 1969 that performs free jazz shows daily at venues throughout the city during July.
Casey's Center is the Des Moines area's primary venue for sporting events and concerts since its opening in 2005. Named for title sponsor Casey's, Casey's Center holds 16,980 and books large, national touring acts for arena concert performances, while several smaller venues host local, regional, and national bands. It is the home of the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League, the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League, and the Iowa Barnstormers of the Indoor Football League.
The Simon Estes Riverfront Amphitheater is an outdoor concert venue on the east bank of the Des Moines River which hosts music events such as the Alive Concert Series.
The Des Moines Art Center, with wings designed by architects I.M. Pei and Richard Meier, presents art exhibitions and educational programs as well as studio art classes. The Center houses a collection of artwork from the 19th century to the present. An extension of the art center is downtown in an urban museum space, featuring three or four exhibitions each year.
The Pappajohn Sculpture Park was established in 2009. It showcases a collection of 24 sculptures donated by Des Moines philanthropists John and Mary Pappajohn. Nearby is the Temple for Performing Arts, a cultural center for the city. Next to the Temple is the 117,000-square-foot (10,900 m2) Central Library, designed by renowned English architect David Chipperfield.
Salisbury House and Gardens is a 42-room historic house museum on 10 acres (4 ha) of woodlands in the South of Grand neighborhood of Des Moines. It is named after—and loosely inspired by—King's House in Salisbury, England. Built in the 1920s by cosmetics magnate Carl Weeks and his wife, Edith, the Salisbury House contains authentic 16th-century English oak and rafters dating to Shakespeare's days, numerous other architectural features re-purposed from other historic English homes, and an internationally significant collection of original fine art, tapestries, decorative art, furniture, musical instruments, and rare books and documents. The Salisbury House is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and has been featured on A&E's America's Castles and PBS's Antiques Roadshow. Prominent artists in the Salisbury House collection include Joseph Stella, Lillian Genth, Anthony van Dyck and Lawrence Alma-Tadema.
Built in 1877 by prominent pioneer businessman Hoyt Sherman, Hoyt Sherman Place mansion was Des Moines' first public art gallery and houses a distinctive collection of 19th and 20th century artwork. Its restored 1,250-seat theater features an intricate rococo plaster ceiling and excellent acoustics and is used for a variety of cultural performances and entertainment.
Arising in the east and facing westward toward downtown, the Iowa State Capitol building with its 275-foot (84 m), 23-karat gold leafed dome towering above the city is a favorite of sightseers. Four smaller domes flank the main dome. The Capitol houses the governor's offices, legislature, and the old Supreme Court Chambers. The ornate interior also features a grand staircase, mural "Westward", five-story law library, scale model of the USS Iowa, and collection of first lady dolls. Guided tours are available.
The Capitol grounds include a World War II memorial with sculpture and Wall of Memories, the 1894 Soldiers and Sailors Monument of the Civil War and memorials honoring those who served in the Spanish–American, Korean, and Vietnam Wars. The West Capitol Terrace provides the entrance from the west to the state's grandest building, the State Capitol Building. The 10-acre (4 ha) "people's park" at the foot of the Capitol complex includes a promenade and landscaped gardens, in addition to providing public space for rallies and special events. A granite map of Iowa depicting all 99 counties rests at the base of the terrace and has become an attraction for in-state visitors, many of whom walk over the map to find their home county.
Iowa's history lives on in the State of Iowa Historical Museum. This modern granite and glass structure at the foot of the State Capitol Building houses permanent and temporary exhibits exploring the people, places, events, and issues of Iowa's past. The showcase includes native wildlife, American Indian and pioneer artifacts, and political and military items. The museum features a genealogy and Iowa history library, museum gift shop, and cafe.
Terrace Hill, a National Historic Landmark and Iowa Governor's Residence, is among the best examples of American Victorian Second Empire architecture. This opulent 1869 home was built by Iowa's first millionaire, Benjamin F. Allen, and restored to the late 19th century period. It overlooks downtown Des Moines and is situated on 8 acres (3.2 ha) with a re-created Victorian formal garden. Tours are conducted Tuesdays through Saturdays from March through December.
The 110,000-square-foot (10,000 m2) Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater offers seven interactive learning areas, live programs, and hands-on activities encouraging learning and fun for all ages. Among its three theaters include the 216-seat Blank IMAX Dome Theater, 175-seat John Deere Adventure Theater featuring live performances, and a 50-foot (15 m) domed Star Theater.
The Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden, an indoor conservatory of over 15,000 exotic plants, is one of the largest collections of tropical, subtropical, and desert-growing plants in the Midwest. The Center blooms with thousands of flowers year-round. Nearby are the Robert D. Ray Asian Gardens and Pavilion, named in honor of the former governor whose influence helped relocate thousands of Vietnamese refugees to Iowa homes in the 1970s and 1980s. Developed by the city's Asian community, the Gardens include a three-story Chinese pavilion, bonsai landscaping, and granite sculptures to highlight the importance of diversity and recognize Asian American contributions in Iowa.
Blank Park Zoo is a landscaped 22-acre (8.9 ha) zoological park on the south side. Among the exhibits include a tropical rain forest, Australian Outback, and Africa. The Zoo offers education classes, tours, and rental facilities.
The Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary was established as a scientific research facility with a 230-acre (93 ha) campus housing bonobos and orangutans for the noninvasive interdisciplinary study of their cognitive and communicative capabilities.
The East Village, on the east side of the Des Moines River, begins at the river and extends about five blocks east to the State Capitol Building, offering an eclectic blend of historic buildings, hip eateries, boutiques, art galleries, and a wide variety of other retail establishments mixed with residences.
Adventureland Park is an amusement park in neighboring Altoona, just northeast of Des Moines. The park boasts more than 100 rides, shows, and attractions, including six rollercoasters. A hotel and campground is just outside the park. Also in Altoona is Prairie Meadows Racetrack and Casino, an entertainment venue for gambling and horse racing. Open 24 hours a day, year-round, the racetrack and casino features live racing, plus over 1,750 slot machines, table games, and concert and show entertainment. The racetrack hosts two Grade III races annually, the Iowa Oaks and the Cornhusker Handicap.
Living History Farms in suburban Urbandale tells the story of Midwestern agriculture and rural life in a 500-acre (2.0 km2) open-air museum with interpreters dressed in period costume who recreate the daily routines of early Iowans. Open daily from May through October, the Living History Farms include a 1700 Ioway Indian village, 1850 pioneer farm, 1875 frontier town, 1900 horse-powered farm, and a modern crop center.
Wallace House was the home of the first Henry Wallace, a national leader in agriculture and conservation and the first editor of Wallaces' Farmer farm journal. This restored 1883 Italianate Victorian houses exhibits, artifacts, and information covering four generations of Henry Wallaces and other family members.
Historic Jordan House in West Des Moines is a stately Victorian home built in 1850 and added to in 1870 by the first white settler in West Des Moines, James C. Jordan. Completely refurbished, this mansion was part of the Underground Railroad and today houses 16 period rooms, a railroad museum, West Des Moines community history, and a museum dedicated to the Underground Railroad in Iowa. In 1893 Jordan's daughter Eda was sliding down the banister when she fell off and broke her neck. She died two days later, and her ghost is reputed to haunt the house.[73]
The Chicago Tribune wrote that Iowa's capital city has "walker-friendly downtown streets and enough outdoor sculpture, sleek buildings, storefronts and cafes to delight the most jaded stroller".[74]
Des Moines plays host to a growing number of nationally acclaimed cultural events, including the annual Des Moines Arts Festival in June, Metro Arts Jazz in July,[75] Iowa State Fair in August, and the World Food & Music Festival in September.[76]
Other annual festivals and events include: Des Moines Beer Week, 80/35 Music Festival, 515 Alive Music Festival, ArtFest Midwest, Blue Ribbon Bacon Fest,[77]
Des Moines hosts professional minor league teams in several sports — baseball, basketball, hockey, indoor football, and soccer — and is home to the sports teams of Drake University which play in NCAA Division I.
The Des Moines Menace soccer club, a member of USL League Two, play their home games at Valley Stadium in West Des Moines. Des Moines United FC of the National Premier Soccer League also utilize Valley Stadium.
Des Moines is home to the Iowa Cubs baseball team of the International League. The I-Cubs, which are the Triple-A affiliate of the major league Chicago Cubs, play their home games at Principal Park near the confluence of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers.
Casey's Center of the Iowa Events Center is home to the Iowa Barnstormers of the Indoor Football League, the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League, and the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League. The Barnstormers relaunched as an af2 club in 2008 before joining a relaunched Arena Football League in 2010 and the Indoor Football League in 2015; the Barnstormers had previously played in the Arena Football League from 1994 to 2000 (featuring future NFL Hall of Famer and Super Bowl MVP quarterback Kurt Warner) before relocating to New York. The Iowa Energy, a D-League team, began play in 2007. They were bought by the Minnesota Timberwolves in 2017 and were renamed the Iowa Wolves to reflect the new ownership. The Wild, the AHL affiliate of the National Hockey League's Minnesota Wild have played at Casey's Center since 2013; previously, the Iowa Chops played four seasons in Des Moines (known as the Iowa Stars for three of those seasons.)
Additionally, the Des Moines Buccaneers of the United States Hockey League play at Buccaneer Arena in suburban Urbandale.
Des Moines is also home to the Drake University Bulldogs, an NCAA Division I member of the Missouri Valley Conference, primarily playing northwest of downtown at the on-campus Drake Stadium and Knapp Center. Drake Stadium is home to the famed Drake Relays each April. In addition to the Drake Relays, Drake Stadium has hosted multiple NCAA Outdoor Track and Field Championships and USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships.[79]
The Vikings of Grand View University also compete in intercollegiate athletics in Des Moines. A member of the Heart of America Athletic Conference, within the NAIA, they field 21 varsity athletic teams. They were NAIA National Champions in football in 2013.
The Principal Charity Classic, a Champions Tour golf event, is held at Wakonda Club in late May or early June. The IMT Des Moines Marathon is held throughout the city each October.
| Club | Sport | League | Venue | City | Founded |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Iowa Barnstormers | American football | Indoor Football League | Casey's Center | Des Moines | 1995 (2008) |
| Iowa Cubs | Baseball | International League, Minor League Baseball | Principal Park | Des Moines | 1969 |
| Iowa Wolves | Basketball | NBA G League | Casey's Center | Des Moines | 2007 |
| Des Moines Buccaneers | Ice hockey | United States Hockey League | Buccaneer Arena | Urbandale | 1980 |
| Iowa Wild | Ice hockey | American Hockey League | Casey's Center | Des Moines | 2013 |
| Des Moines Menace | Soccer | USL League Two | Valley Stadium | West Des Moines | 1994 |
| Des Moines United FC | Soccer | National Premier Soccer League | Valley Stadium | West Des Moines | 2021 |
| Drake Bulldogs | Multi | NCAA Division I, Missouri Valley Conference | Drake Stadium, Knapp Center | Des Moines | 1881 |
Des Moines has 76 city parks and three golf courses, as well as three family aquatic centers, five community centers and three swimming pools. The city has 45 miles (72 km) of trails. The first major park was Greenwood Park. The park commissioners purchased the land on April 21, 1894.
The Principal Riverwalk is a riverwalk park district being constructed along the banks of the Des Moines River in the downtown. Primarily funded by the Principal Financial Group, the Riverwalk is a multi-year jointly funded project also funded by the city and state. Upon completion, it will feature a 1.2-mile (1.9 km) recreational trail connecting the east and west sides of downtown via two pedestrian bridges. A landscaped promenade along the street level is planned. The Riverwalk includes the downtown Brenton Skating Plaza, open from November through March.
Gray's Lake, part of the 167 acres (68 ha) of Gray's Lake Park, features a boat rental facility, fishing pier, floating boardwalks, and a park resource center. Located just south of the downtown, the centerpiece of the park is a lighted 1.9-mile (3.1 km) Kruidenier Trail, encircling it entirely.
From downtown Des Moines primarily along the east bank of the Des Moines River, the Neil Smith and John Pat Dorrian Trails are 28.2-mile (45.4 km) paved recreational trails that connect Gray's Lake northward to the east shore of Saylorville Lake, Big Creek State Park, and the recreational trails of Ankeny including the High Trestle Trail.[80] These trails are near several recreational facilities including the Pete Crivaro Park, Principal Park, the Principal Riverwalk, the Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden, Union Park and its Heritage Carousel of Des Moines, Birdland Park and the Birdland Marina/Boatramp on the Des Moines River, Riverview Park, McHenry Park, and River Drive Park.[81] Although outside of Des Moines, Jester Park has 1,834 acres (742 ha) of land along the western shore of Saylorville Lake and can be reached from the Neil Smith Trail over the Saylorville Dam.
Just west of Gray's Lake are the 1,500 acres (607 ha) of the Des Moines Water Works Park. The Water Works Park is along the banks of the Raccoon River immediately upstream from where the Raccoon River empties into the Des Moines River. The Des Moines Water Works Facility, which obtains the city's drinking water from the Raccoon River, is entirely within the Water Works Park. A bridge in the park crosses the Raccoon River. The Water Works Park recreational trails link to downtown Des Moines by travelling past Gray's Lake and back across the Raccoon River via either along the Meredith Trail near Principal Park, or along the Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway. The Water Works Park trails connect westward to Valley Junction and the recreational trails of the western suburbs: Windsor Heights, Urbandale, Clive, and Waukee. Also originating from Water Works Park, the Great Western Trail is an 18-mile (29 km) journey southward from Des Moines to Martensdale through the Willow Creek Golf Course, Orilla, and Cumming. Often, the location for summer music festivals and concerts, Water Works Park was the overnight campground for thousands of bicyclists on Tuesday, July 23, 2013, during RAGBRAI XLI.[82]
Des Moines operates under a council–manager form of government. The council consists of a mayor who is elected in citywide vote, two at-large members, and four members representing each of the city's four wards. In 2014, Jonathan Gano was appointed as the new Public Works Director.[83] In 2015, Dana Wingert was appointed as Police Chief.[84] In 2018, Steven L. Naber was appointed as the new City Engineer.[85]
The council members include:[86]
| Ward[87] | Locale | Member | Elected | Term ends |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Northwest | Chris Coleman | 2023 | 2026 |
| 2 | Northeast | Linda Westergaard | 2015 | 2028 |
| 3 | Southwest | Josh Mandelbaum | 2017 | 2026 |
| 4 | Southeast | Joe Gatto | 2014 | 2028 |
| At-large | Citywide | Carl Voss | 2019 | 2028 |
| At-large | Citywide | Mike Simonson | 2024 | 2026 |
| Mayor | Citywide | Connie Boesen | 2023 | 2028 |
A plan to merge the governments of Des Moines and Polk County was rejected by voters during the November 2, 2004, election. The consolidated city-county government would have had a full-time mayor and a 15-member council that would have been divided among the city and its suburbs. Each suburb would still have retained its individual government but with the option to join the consolidated government at any time. Although a full merger was soundly rejected, several city and county departments and programs have been consolidated.
The Des Moines Public Schools district is the largest community school district in Iowa with 32,062 enrolled students as of the 2012–2013 school year. The district consists of 63 schools: 38 elementary schools, eleven middle schools, five high schools (East, Hoover, Lincoln, North, and Roosevelt), and ten special schools and programs.[88] Small parts of the city are instead served by Carlisle Community Schools,[89] Johnston Community School District,[90] the Southeast Polk Community School District[91] and the Saydel School District[92] Grand View Christian School is the only private school in the city, although Des Moines Christian School (in Des Moines from 1947 to 2006) in Urbandale, Dowling Catholic High School in West Des Moines, and Ankeny Christian Academy on the north side of the metro area serve some city residents.
Des Moines is also home to the main campuses of three four-year private colleges: Drake University, Grand View University, and Mercy College of Health Sciences. The University of Iowa has a satellite facility in the city's Western Gateway Park, while Iowa State University hosts Master of Business Administration classes downtown. Des Moines Area Community College is the area's community college with campuses in Ankeny, Des Moines, and West Des Moines. The city is also home to Des Moines University, an osteopathic medical school.
The Des Moines market, which originally consisted of Polk, Dallas, Story, and Warren counties,[93] was ranked 91st by Arbitron as of the fall of 2007 with a population of 512,000 aged 12 and older.[94] In June 2011 it moved up to 72nd with the addition of Boone, Clarke, Greene, Guthrie, Jasper, Lucas, Madison and Marion counties.[95]
iHeartMedia owns five radio stations in the area, including WHO 1040 AM, a 50,000-watt AM news/talk station that has the highest ratings in the area[96] and once employed future President Ronald Reagan as a sportscaster. In addition to WHO, iHeartMedia owns KDRB 100.3 FM (adult hits), KKDM 107.5 FM (contemporary hits), KXNO-FM 106.3, and KXNO 1460 AM (sports radio).[97] They also own news/talk station KASI 1430 AM and hot adult contemporary station KCYZ 105.1 FM, both of which broadcast from Ames.
Cumulus Media owns five stations that broadcast from facilities in Urbandale: KBGG 1700 AM (sports), KGGO 94.9 FM (classic rock), KHKI 97.3 FM (country music), KJJY 92.5 FM (country music), and KWQW 98.3 FM (contemporary hits).[98]
Saga Communications owns nine stations in the area: KAZR LAZER 103.3 FM (rock), KAZR-HD2 (oldies), 93.3 KIOA FM (Classic Hits), KIOA-HD2 HITS 99.9FM & 93.3 HD2 (Rhythmic Top 40), KOEZ 104.1 EZ FM (soft adult contemporary), KPSZ HOPE 940 AM (Religious teaching and conservative talk), KRNT 1350 AM (ESPN Radio), KSTZ STAR 102.5 FM (adult contemporary hits), and KSTZ-HD2 The Outlaw (classic country).[99]
Other stations in the Des Moines area include religious stations KWKY 1150 AM, and KPUL 101.7 FM.[100]
Non-commercial radio stations in the Des Moines area include KDPS 88.1 FM, a station operated by the Des Moines Public Schools; KWDM 88.7 FM, a station operated by Valley High School; KJMC 89.3 FM, an urban contemporary station; K213DV 90.5 FM, the contemporary Christian K-Love affiliate for the area; and KDFR 91.3 FM, operated by Family Radio. Iowa Public Radio broadcasts several stations in the Des Moines area, all of which are owned by Iowa State University and operated on campus. WOI 640 AM, the network's flagship station, and WOI-FM 90.1, the network's flagship "Studio One" station, are both based out of Ames and serve as the area's National Public Radio outlets. The network also operates classical stations KICG, KICJ, KICL and KICP.[101] The University of Northwestern – St. Paul operates Contemporary Christian simulcasts of KNWI-FM at 107.1 Osceola/Des Moines, KNWM-FM at 96.1 Madrid/Ames/Des Moines, and K264CD at 100.7 in downtown Des Moines. Low-power FM stations include KFMG-LP 99.1, a community radio station broadcasting from the Hotel Fort Des Moines and also webstreamed.[100][102]
The Des Moines-Ames media market consists of 35 central Iowa counties: Adair, Adams, Appanoose, Audubon, Boone, Calhoun, Carroll, Clarke, Dallas, Decatur, Franklin, Greene, Guthrie, Hamilton, Hardin, Humboldt, Jasper, Kossuth, Lucas, Madison, Mahaska, Marion, Marshall, Monroe, Pocahontas, Polk, Poweshiek, Ringgold, Story, Taylor, Union, Warren, Wayne, Webster, and Wright.[93] It was ranked 71st by Nielsen Media Research for the 2008–2009 television season with 432,410 television households.[103]
Commercial television stations serving Des Moines include CBS affiliate KCCI channel 8, NBC affiliate WHO-DT channel 13, and Fox affiliate KDSM-TV channel 17. ABC affiliate WOI-TV channel 5 and CW affiliate KCWI-TV channel 23 are both licensed to Ames and broadcast from studios in West Des Moines. KFPX-TV channel 39, the local ION affiliate, is licensed to Newton. Two non-commercial stations are also licensed to Des Moines: KDIN channel 11, the local PBS member station and flagship of the Iowa Public Television network, and KDMI channel 19, a TCT affiliate. Mediacom is the Des Moines area's cable television provider.[104]
The Des Moines Register is the city's primary daily newspaper. As of March 31, 2007, the Register ranked 71st in circulation among daily newspapers in the United States according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations with 146,050 daily and 233,229 Sunday subscribers.[105] Weekly newspapers include Juice, a publication aimed at the 25–34 demographic published by the Register on Wednesdays; Cityview, an alternative weekly published on Thursdays; and the Des Moines Business Record, a business journal published on Sundays, along with the West Des Moines Register, the Johnston Register, and the Waukee Register on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, or Thursdays depending on the address of the subscriber. Additionally, magazine publisher Meredith Corporation was based in Des Moines prior to its acquisition by IAC and merger with Dotdash in 2021.
Des Moines is the birthplace of many famously known bands and artists today. Slipknot, a popular American heavy metal band, was founded in 1995 by percussionist Shawn Crahan, former vocalist Anders Colsefni and bassist Paul Gray; the band would be also founded by Joey Jordison. The band was signed to Roadrunner Records and has become one of the biggest bands in the metal world.
Stone Sour, an American rock band, was founded in 1992 by Corey Taylor and former drummer Joel Ekman. Taylor would later go on to become the lead singer for Slipknot. The band has since been on an indefinite hiatus since 2020.
Vended, an American heavy metal band, was founded in 2018[106] by Griffin Taylor and Simon Crahan, who are the sons of well-known musicians Corey Taylor and Shawn "Clown" Crahan from Slipknot. They are currently an independent band that has released one studio album in 2024[106] called Vended, several singles and one EP. The band has seen growing success in the past few years, including their 2022 Vended tour in the United States with Jinjer and P.O.D.
Des Moines has an extensive skywalk system within its downtown core. With over four miles of enclosed walkway, it is one of the largest of such systems in the United States. The Des Moines Skywalk System has been criticized for hurting street-level business, though a recent initiative has been made to make street-level Skywalk entrances more visible.
Interstate 235 (I-235) cuts through the city, and I-35 and I-80 both pass through the Des Moines metropolitan area, as well as the city of Des Moines. On the northern side of the city of Des Moines and passing through the cities of Altoona, Clive, Johnston, Urbandale and West Des Moines, I-35 and I-80 converge into a long concurrency while I-235 takes a direct route through Des Moines, Windsor Heights, and West Des Moines before meeting up with I-35 and I-80 on the western edge of the metro. The Des Moines Bypass passes south and east of the city.[107] Other routes in and around the city include US 6, US 69, Iowa 28, Iowa 141, Iowa 163, Iowa 330, Iowa 415, and Iowa 160.
Des Moines's public transit system, operated by DART (Des Moines Area Regional Transit), which was the Des Moines Metropolitan Transit Authority until October 2006, consists entirely of buses, including regular in-city routes and express and commuter buses to outlying suburban areas.
Characteristics of household ownership of cars in Des Moines are similar to national averages. In 2015, 8.5 percent of Des Moines households lacked a car, and that number increased to 9.6 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Des Moines averaged 1.71 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.[108]
Burlington Trailways and Jefferson Lines run long-distance, intercity bus routes through Des Moines. The bus station is located north of downtown.
Although Des Moines was historically a train hub, it does not have direct passenger train service. For east–west traffic it was served at the Rock Island Depot by the Corn Belt Rocket express from Omaha to the west, to Chicago in the east. The Rock Island also offered the Rocky Mountain Rocket from Colorado Springs in the west, to Chicago, and the Twin Star Rocket to Minneapolis to the north and Dallas and Houston to the south. The last train was an unnamed service ending at Council Bluffs, and it was discontinued on May 31, 1970.[109][110] Today, this line constitutes the mainline of the Iowa Interstate Railroad.
Other railroads used the East Des Moines Union Station. Northward and northwest bound, there were Chicago and North Western trains to destinations including Minneapolis. The Wabash Railroad ran service to the southeast to St. Louis. These lines remain in use but are now operated by Union Pacific and BNSF.
The nearest Amtrak station is in Osceola, about 40 miles (64 km) south of Des Moines. The Osceola station is served by the Chicago–San Francisco California Zephyr; there is no Osceola–Des Moines Amtrak Thruway connecting service.[111] There have been proposals to extend Amtrak's planned Chicago–Moline Quad City Rocket to Des Moines via the Iowa Interstate Railroad.[112][113]
The Des Moines International Airport (DSM), on Fleur Drive in the southern part of Des Moines, offers nonstop service to destinations within the United States. The only international service has been cargo service, but there have been discussions about adding an international terminal.
The Greater Des Moines Sister City Commission, with members from the City of Des Moines and the suburbs of Cumming, Norwalk, Windsor Heights, Johnston, Urbandale, and Ankeny, maintains sister city relationships with:[114]
Kōfu, Japan (1958)
Saint-Étienne, France (1985)
Shijiazhuang, China (1985)
Pristina, Kosovo (2018) (Kosovo also opened a Consulate in downtown Des Moines in 2015 – List of diplomatic missions of Kosovo)[115]
Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia (1987)[116]Des Moines was nicknamed the Hartford of the West because like Hartford, Conn., it is an insurance center.
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| Tooth | |
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A chimpanzee displaying his teeth
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| Identifiers | |
| Latin | dens |
| Greek | ὀδούς (odoús) |
| MeSH | D014070 |
| FMA | 12516 |
| Anatomical terminology | |
A tooth (pl.: teeth) is a hard, calcified structure found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates and used to break down food. Some animals, particularly carnivores and omnivores, also use teeth to help with capturing or wounding prey, tearing food, for defensive purposes, to intimidate other animals often including their own, or to carry prey or their young. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of multiple tissues of varying density and hardness that originate from the outermost embryonic germ layer, the ectoderm.
The general structure of teeth is similar across the vertebrates, although there is considerable variation in their form and position. The teeth of mammals have deep roots, and this pattern is also found in some fish, and in crocodilians. In most teleost fish, however, the teeth are attached to the outer surface of the bone, while in lizards they are attached to the inner surface of the jaw by one side. In cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, the teeth are attached by tough ligaments to the hoops of cartilage that form the jaw.[1]
Monophyodonts are animals that develop only one set of teeth, while diphyodonts grow an early set of deciduous teeth and a later set of permanent or "adult" teeth. Polyphyodonts grow many sets of teeth. For example, sharks, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Most extant mammals including humans are diphyodonts, but there are exceptions including elephants, kangaroos, and manatees, all of which are polyphyodonts.
Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, which helps maintain relatively constant length. The industry of the beaver is due in part to this qualification. Some rodents, such as voles and guinea pigs (but not mice), as well as lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas), have continuously growing molars in addition to incisors.[2][3] Also, tusks (in tusked mammals) grow almost throughout life.[4]
Teeth are not always attached to the jaw, as they are in mammals. In many reptiles, amphibians and fish, teeth are also attached to the roof of the mouth (as well as to the floor of the mouth in many fish), forming additional rows inside those on the jaws proper. Some teleosts even have teeth in the pharynx. While not true teeth in the usual sense, the dermal denticles of sharks are almost identical in structure and are likely to have the same evolutionary origin. Indeed, teeth appear to have first evolved in sharks, and are not found in the more primitive jawless fish – while lampreys do have tooth-like structures on the tongue, these are in fact, composed of keratin, not of dentine or enamel, and bear no relationship to true teeth.[1] Though "modern" teeth-like structures with dentine and enamel have been found in late conodonts, they are now supposed to have evolved independently of later vertebrates' teeth.[5][6]
Living amphibians typically have small teeth, or none at all, since they commonly feed only on soft foods. In reptiles, teeth are generally simple and conical in shape, although there is some variation between species, most notably the venom-injecting fangs of snakes. The pattern of incisors, canines, premolars and molars is found only in mammals, and to varying extents, in their evolutionary ancestors. The numbers of these types of teeth vary greatly between species; zoologists use a standardised dental formula to describe the precise pattern in any given group.[1]
The word tooth comes from Proto-Germanic *tanþs, derived from the Proto-Indo-European *h₁dent-, which was composed of the root *h₁ed- 'to eat' plus the active participle suffix *-nt, therefore literally meaning 'that which eats'.[7]
The irregular plural form teeth is the result of Germanic umlaut whereby vowels immediately preceding a high vocalic in the following syllable were raised. As the nominative plural ending of the Proto-Germanic consonant stems (to which *tanþs belonged) was *-iz, the root vowel in the plural form *tanþiz (changed by this point to *tą̄þi via unrelated phonological processes) was raised to /œː/, and later unrounded to /eː/, resulting in the tōþ/tēþ alternation attested from Old English. Cf. also Old English bōc/bēċ 'book/books' and 'mūs/mȳs' 'mouse/mice', from Proto-Germanic *bōks/bōkiz and *mūs/mūsiz respectively.
Cognate with Latin dēns, Greek ὀδούς (odous), and Sanskrit dát.
Teeth are assumed to have evolved either from ectoderm denticles (scales, much like those on the skin of sharks) that folded and integrated into the mouth (called the "outside–in" theory), or from endoderm pharyngeal teeth (primarily formed in the pharynx of jawless vertebrates) (the "inside–out" theory). In addition, there is another theory stating that neural crest gene regulatory network, and neural crest-derived ectomesenchyme are the key to generate teeth (with any epithelium, either ectoderm or endoderm).[4][8]
The genes governing tooth development in mammals are homologous to those involved in the development of fish scales.[9] Study of a tooth plate of a fossil of the extinct fish Romundina stellina showed that the teeth and scales were made of the same tissues, also found in mammal teeth, lending support to the theory that teeth evolved as a modification of scales.[10]
In some fish and ancestrally in tetrapods, teeth are also present in the roof of the mouth (palatal dentition), in tetrapods these teeth have been lost in living mammals, birds, turtles and crocodilians, but are retained by lizards, snakes, the tuatara and amphibians.[11]
Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of the animal's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing and grinding. Carnivores, on the other hand, have canine teeth to kill prey and to tear meat.
Mammals, in general, are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the "baby", "milk", "primary" or "deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful. Kangaroos, elephants, and manatees are unusual among mammals because they are polyphyodonts.
In aardvarks, teeth lack enamel and have many pulp tubules, hence the name of the order Tubulidentata.[12]
In dogs, the teeth are less likely than humans to form dental cavities because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing.[13] Sometimes called cuspids, these teeth are shaped like points (cusps) and are used for tearing and grasping food.[14]
Like human teeth, whale teeth have polyp-like protrusions located on the root surface of the tooth. These polyps are made of cementum in both species, but in human teeth, the protrusions are located on the outside of the root, while in whales the nodule is located on the inside of the pulp chamber. While the roots of human teeth are made of cementum on the outer surface, whales have cementum on the entire surface of the tooth with a very small layer of enamel at the tip. This small enamel layer is only seen in older whales where the cementum has been worn away to show the underlying enamel.[15]
The toothed whale is a parvorder of the cetaceans characterized by having teeth. The teeth differ considerably among the species. They may be numerous, with some dolphins bearing over 100 teeth in their jaws. On the other hand, the narwhals have a giant unicorn-like tusk, which is a tooth containing millions of sensory pathways and used for sensing during feeding, navigation, and mating. It is the most neurologically complex tooth known. Beaked whales are almost toothless, with only bizarre teeth found in males. These teeth may be used for feeding but also for demonstrating aggression and showmanship.
In humans (and most other primates), there are usually 20 primary (also "baby" or "milk") teeth, and later up to 32 permanent teeth. Four of these 32 may be third molars or wisdom teeth, although these are not present in all adults, and may be removed surgically later in life.[16]
Among primary teeth, 10 of them are usually found in the maxilla (i.e. upper jaw) and the other 10 in the mandible (i.e. lower jaw). Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla and the other 16 in the mandible. Most of the teeth have uniquely distinguishing features.
An adult horse has between 36 and 44 teeth. The enamel and dentin layers of horse teeth are intertwined.[17] All horses have 12 premolars, 12 molars, and 12 incisors.[18] Generally, all male equines also have four canine teeth (called tushes) between the molars and incisors. However, few female horses (less than 28%) have canines, and those that do usually have only one or two, which many times are only partially erupted.[19] A few horses have one to four wolf teeth, which are vestigial premolars, with most of those having only one or two. They are equally common in male and female horses and much more likely to be on the upper jaw. If present these can cause problems as they can interfere with the horse's bit contact. Therefore, wolf teeth are commonly removed.[18]
Horse teeth can be used to estimate the animal's age. Between birth and five years, age can be closely estimated by observing the eruption pattern on milk teeth and then permanent teeth. By age five, all permanent teeth have usually erupted. The horse is then said to have a "full" mouth. After the age of five, age can only be conjectured by studying the wear patterns on the incisors, shape, the angle at which the incisors meet, and other factors. The wear of teeth may also be affected by diet, natural abnormalities, and cribbing. Two horses of the same age may have different wear patterns.
A horse's incisors, premolars, and molars, once fully developed, continue to erupt as the grinding surface is worn down through chewing. A young adult horse will have teeth, which are 110–130 mm (4.5–5 inches) long, with the majority of the crown remaining below the gumline in the dental socket. The rest of the tooth will slowly emerge from the jaw, erupting about 3 mm (1⁄8 in) each year, as the horse ages. When the animal reaches old age, the crowns of the teeth are very short and the teeth are often lost altogether. Very old horses, if lacking molars, may need to have their fodder ground up and soaked in water to create a soft mush for them to eat in order to obtain adequate nutrition.
Elephants' tusks are specialized incisors for digging food up and fighting. Some elephant teeth are similar to those in manatees, and elephants are believed to have undergone an aquatic phase in their evolution.
At birth, elephants have a total of 28 molar plate-like grinding teeth not including the tusks. These are organized into four sets of seven successively larger teeth which the elephant will slowly wear through during its lifetime of chewing rough plant material. Only four teeth are used for chewing at a given time, and as each tooth wears out, another tooth moves forward to take its place in a process similar to a conveyor belt. The last and largest of these teeth usually becomes exposed when the animal is around 40 years of age, and will often last for an additional 20 years. When the last of these teeth has fallen out, regardless of the elephant's age, the animal will no longer be able to chew food and will die of starvation.[20][21]
Rabbits and other lagomorphs usually shed their deciduous teeth before (or very shortly after) their birth, and are usually born with their permanent teeth.[22] The teeth of rabbits complement their diet, which consists of a wide range of vegetation. Since many of the foods are abrasive enough to cause attrition, rabbit teeth grow continuously throughout life.[23] Rabbits have a total of six incisors, three upper premolars, three upper molars, two lower premolars, and two lower molars on each side. There are no canines. Dental formula is 2.0.3.31.0.2.3 = 28. Three to four millimeters of the tooth is worn away by incisors every week, whereas the cheek teeth require a month to wear away the same amount.[24]
The incisors and cheek teeth of rabbits are called aradicular hypsodont teeth. This is sometimes referred to as an elodent dentition. These teeth grow or erupt continuously. The growth or eruption is held in balance by dental abrasion from chewing a diet high in fiber.
Rodents have upper and lower hypselodont incisors that can continuously grow enamel throughout its life without having properly formed roots.[25] These teeth are also known as aradicular teeth, and unlike humans whose ameloblasts die after tooth development, rodents continually produce enamel, they must wear down their teeth by gnawing on various materials.[26] Enamel and dentin are produced by the enamel organ, and growth is dependent on the presence of stem cells, cellular amplification, and cellular maturation structures in the odontogenic region.[27] Rodent incisors are used for cutting wood, biting through the skin of fruit, or for defense. This allows for the rate of wear and tooth growth to be at equilibrium.[25] The microstructure of rodent incisor enamel has shown to be useful in studying the phylogeny and systematics of rodents because of its independent evolution from the other dental traits. The enamel on rodent incisors are composed of two layers: the inner portio interna (PI) with Hunter-Schreger bands (HSB) and an outer portio externa (PE) with radial enamel (RE).[28] It usually involves the differential regulation of the epithelial stem cell niche in the tooth of two rodent species, such as guinea pigs.[29][30]
The teeth have enamel on the outside and exposed dentin on the inside, so they self-sharpen during gnawing. On the other hand, continually growing molars are found in some rodent species, such as the sibling vole and the guinea pig.[29][30] There is variation in the dentition of the rodents, but generally, rodents lack canines and premolars, and have a space between their incisors and molars, called the diastema region.
Manatees are polyphyodont with mandibular molars developing separately from the jaw and are encased in a bony shell separated by soft tissue.[31][32]
Walrus tusks are canine teeth that grow continuously throughout life.[33]
Fish, such as sharks, may go through many teeth in their lifetime. The replacement of multiple teeth is known as polyphyodontia.
A class of prehistoric shark are called cladodonts for their strange forked teeth.
Unlike the continuous shedding of functional teeth seen in modern sharks,[34][35] the majority of stem chondrichthyan lineages retained all tooth generations developed throughout the life of the animal.[36] This replacement mechanism is exemplified by the tooth whorl-based dentitions of acanthodians,[37] which include the oldest known toothed vertebrate, Qianodus duplicis[38].
All amphibians have pedicellate teeth, which are modified to be flexible due to connective tissue and uncalcified dentine that separates the crown from the base of the tooth.[39]
Most amphibians exhibit teeth that have a slight attachment to the jaw or acrodont teeth. Acrodont teeth exhibit limited connection to the dentary and have little enervation.[40] This is ideal for organisms who mostly use their teeth for grasping, but not for crushing and allows for rapid regeneration of teeth at a low energy cost. Teeth are usually lost in the course of feeding if the prey is struggling. Additionally, amphibians that undergo a metamorphosis develop bicuspid shaped teeth.[41]
The teeth of reptiles are replaced constantly throughout their lives. Crocodilian juveniles replace teeth with larger ones at a rate as high as one new tooth per socket every month. Once mature, tooth replacement rates can slow to two years and even longer. Overall, crocodilians may use 3,000 teeth from birth to death. New teeth are created within old teeth.[42]
A skull of Ichthyornis discovered in 2014 suggests that the beak of birds may have evolved from teeth to allow chicks to escape their shells earlier, and thus avoid predators and also to penetrate protective covers such as hard earth to access underlying food.[43][44]
True teeth are unique to vertebrates,[45] although many invertebrates have analogous structures often referred to as teeth. The organisms with the simplest genome bearing such tooth-like structures are perhaps the parasitic worms of the family Ancylostomatidae.[46] For example, the hookworm Necator americanus has two dorsal and two ventral cutting plates or teeth around the anterior margin of the buccal capsule. It also has a pair of subdorsal and a pair of subventral teeth located close to the rear.[47]
Historically, the European medicinal leech, another invertebrate parasite, has been used in medicine to remove blood from patients.[48] They have three jaws (tripartite) that resemble saws in both appearance and function, and on them are about 100 sharp teeth used to incise the host. The incision leaves a mark that is an inverted Y inside of a circle. After piercing the skin and injecting anticoagulants (hirudin) and anaesthetics, they suck out blood, consuming up to ten times their body weight in a single meal.[49]
In some species of Bryozoa, the first part of the stomach forms a muscular gizzard lined with chitinous teeth that crush armoured prey such as diatoms. Wave-like peristaltic contractions then move the food through the stomach for digestion.[50]
Molluscs have a structure called a radula, which bears a ribbon of chitinous teeth. However, these teeth are histologically and developmentally different from vertebrate teeth and are unlikely to be homologous. For example, vertebrate teeth develop from a neural crest mesenchyme-derived dental papilla, and the neural crest is specific to vertebrates, as are tissues such as enamel.[45]
The radula is used by molluscs for feeding and is sometimes compared rather inaccurately to a tongue. It is a minutely toothed, chitinous ribbon, typically used for scraping or cutting food before the food enters the oesophagus. The radula is unique to molluscs, and is found in every class of mollusc apart from bivalves.
Within the gastropods, the radula is used in feeding by both herbivorous and carnivorous snails and slugs. The arrangement of teeth (also known as denticles) on the radula ribbon varies considerably from one group to another as shown in the diagram on the left.
Predatory marine snails such as the Naticidae use the radula plus an acidic secretion to bore through the shell of other molluscs. Other predatory marine snails, such as the Conidae, use a specialized radula tooth as a poisoned harpoon. Predatory pulmonate land slugs, such as the ghost slug, use elongated razor-sharp teeth on the radula to seize and devour earthworms. Predatory cephalopods, such as squid, use the radula for cutting prey.
In most of the more ancient lineages of gastropods, the radula is used to graze by scraping diatoms and other microscopic algae off rock surfaces and other substrates. Limpets scrape algae from rocks using radula equipped with exceptionally hard rasping teeth.[51] These teeth have the strongest known tensile strength of any biological material, outperforming spider silk.[51] The mineral protein of the limpet teeth can withstand a tensile stress of 4.9 GPa, compared to 4 GPa of spider silk and 0.5 GPa of human teeth.[52]
Because teeth are very resistant, often preserved when bones are not,[53] and reflect the diet of the host organism, they are very valuable to archaeologists and palaeontologists.[54] Early fish such as the thelodonts had scales composed of dentine and an enamel-like compound, suggesting that the origin of teeth was from scales which were retained in the mouth. Fish as early as the late Cambrian had dentine in their exoskeletons, which may have functioned in defense or for sensing their environments.[55] Dentine can be as hard as the rest of teeth and is composed of collagen fibres, reinforced with hydroxyapatite.[55]
Though teeth are very resistant, they also can be brittle and highly susceptible to cracking.[56] However, cracking of the tooth can be used as a diagnostic tool for predicting bite force. Additionally, enamel fractures can also give valuable insight into the diet and behaviour of archaeological and fossil samples.
Decalcification removes the enamel from teeth and leaves only the organic interior intact, which comprises dentine and cementine.[57] Enamel is quickly decalcified in acids,[58] perhaps by dissolution by plant acids or via diagenetic solutions, or in the stomachs of vertebrate predators.[57] Enamel can be lost by abrasion or spalling,[57] and is lost before dentine or bone are destroyed by the fossilisation process.[58] In such a case, the 'skeleton' of the teeth would consist of the dentine, with a hollow pulp cavity.[57] The organic part of dentine, conversely, is destroyed by alkalis.[58]
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Invisalign treatment uses a series of custom-made clear aligners that gradually move teeth into proper alignment. At Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center, digital scans are used to create a precise treatment plan for a discreet and comfortable orthodontic experience.